1 motives construction
1.1 key paraguay
1.2 anxiety brazilian empire
1.3 anxiety buenos aires
1.4 defensive outlook of paraguay
1.5 immediate cause of construction
1.6 initial works
motives construction
the key paraguay. blue arrow shows location of fortress near mouth of river paraguay. @ top of map mato grosso, , territory disputed between brazil , paraguay. (source: thompson, plate viii.)
key paraguay
paraguay landlocked country , of history difficult of access, except sailing atlantic river paraná , hence river paraguay (see map) spanish explorers had done. there other means of ingress, have required invading force resupplied through difficult , hostile country. command of river key security of paraguay, feared , distrusted 2 larger neighbours brazil , argentina.
anxiety brazilian empire
in long history of conflicts between empires of portugal , spain in america, portuguese made numerous incursions – of them permanent – spanish-claimed territory. slave raids bandeirantes (frontiersmen brazil) jesuit reductions of paraguay carried off many guaraní inhabitants, feared , despised brazilians. boundaries between 2 empires not resolved , conflicts continued after independence, when portuguese america became empire of brazil. brazil had no practical access own territory of mato grosso except sailing atlantic ocean river paraguay (see map); fear paraguay might interfere navigation source of conflict. paraguay ended, , mato grosso began, matter of opinion.
anxiety buenos aires
the spanish viceroyalty of river plate occupied enormous territory coterminous modern-day territories of bolivia, central , northern argentina, paraguay , uruguay. although did not exist long (1776–1810) spanish viceroy had seat in city of buenos aires. upon becoming independent spain city claimed , thought rightly capital of identical territory called united provinces of south america. other provinces – bolivia, uruguay , paraguay – begged differ , viceroyalty broke in acrimony , warfare. in particular, buenos aires did not recognise right of paraguay act independently , in 1811 sent army under general manuel belgrano try prevent it. buenos aires governor juan manuel rosas, viewed paraguay errant province during dictatorship (1835–52) tried bring paraguay heel closing river paraná commercial traffic (see battle of vuelta de obligado). buenos aires province fell out other provinces of argentine confederation , declared independent state of buenos aires; did not recognise paraguay s independence after others had. not until quite late in nineteenth century (1859) re-united argentina formally recognised independent paraguay. so, boundaries between argentina , paraguay in dispute, notably chaco , misiones territories.
defensive outlook of paraguay
upon independence in 1811 paraguay tried keep out of anarchy of adjoining hispanic america. formidable dictator josé gaspar rodríguez de francia (1820–1840) imposed strict policy of isolation. during reign few allowed enter paraguay, or leave it. professor williams assessment: in attempt coerce paraguay economically , bring knees, buenos aires stiffened paraguayan nationalism , produced voluntary, xenophobic isolation of breakaway province .
after francia s death succeeded carlos antonio lópez, (called ‘lópez i’ authors, convenient if inaccurate designation), father of francisco solano lópez (‘lópez ii’). lópez did open paraguay foreign trade , technology, steamship made country vulnerable invasion , understandably feared machinations of powerful neighbours.
during presidency there conflicts, not brazil , buenos aires, united states: uss water witch affair of 1855 in fort of itapirú fired upon american warship, led naval expedition against paraguay in 1858. although carlos lópez astute enough know when down, resolved make paraguay immune foreign attack in future.
immediate cause of construction
the guard-house of humaitá. engraving in illustrated london news, 1864. image appears have been made earlier.
in 1777, in colonial times, modest guardia (fortlet or lookout post) established @ humaitá, place 15 miles above mouth of river paraguay. however, more formidable version built in stages on orders of lópez i. started work hurriedly in 1854 during conflict brazil on boundaries , navigation, when paraguay threatened brazilian flotilla; fortunately lópez, brazilians delayed low state of river. paraguayan author , diplomat gregorio benítes − in paraguayan army @ time − gives different explanation. lópez i, hearing brazilian squadron on way, transferred 6,000 troops paso de patria humaitá; working night , day, in 15 days fortified place, including furnaces making red hot cannonballs. brazilian squadron desisted because of strength of fortifications; low state of water mentioned incidentally. thomas jefferson page usn wrote independent account tends confirm benites version.
initial works
to design hungarian colonel of engineers wisner de morgenstern, hastily fortified river s left bank few batteries, continually augmented, , trench dug on land side enclosing rear of them. felled virgin forest, leaving few scattered trees, grubbed roots, , laid out first batteries, completion 2 years devoted. january 1859 installation appeared formidable. described eye-witness aboard uss fulton, part of paraguay expedition sent president buchanan demand reparations wrongs alleged have been done united states
sixteen ominous apertures pointed gloom, , whatever else may contain, upon us; and, eyes of figure in picture, seemed follow vessel s motion ... these apertures of casemate battery, constructed of brick, deep, , defended formidable battery of sixteen 8 inch guns.
numerous other batteries noticed. fulton, having left rest of squadron behind, allowed proceed upriver.
the works, continually extended, supervised british engineers, of whom there considerable number on contract government of paraguay.
a view of fortress of humaitá before war (horizontally scroll). elevation, sketched in 1857 future admiral ernest mouchez aboard french naval vessel bisson, whom paraguayan government accused of spying, 1 of few depictions of fortress working installation. (most images have survived made after captured , partly demolished allies.) towards left londres battery characteristically wide gun embrasures. sketch not appear show chain boom. copy of french sketch made brazilian naval intelligence @ arsenal de marinha rio de janeiro in 1857 , survives in national library of brazil.
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