1 evidence of initial invasion
1.1 greco-roman sources
1.2 indian sources
1.3 epigraphic remains
1.4 archaeological remains
1.4.1 urban remains
1.4.2 artifacts
1.4.3 stupas
evidence of initial invasion
greco-roman sources
the greco-bactrians went on hindu kush , started re-occupy area of arachosia, greek populations had been living since before acquisition of territory chandragupta seleucus. isidore of charax describes greek cities there, 1 of them called demetrias, in honour of conqueror demetrius.
according strabo, greek advances temporarily went far shunga capital pataliputra (today patna) in eastern india:
of eastern parts of india, then, there have become known parts lie side of hypanis, , parts beyond hypanis of account has been added who, after alexander, advanced beyond hypanis, ganges , pataliputra.
the hellenistic world view before indo-greek conquests. india appears formed, ganges , palibothra (pataliputra) in east. (19th-century reconstruction of ancient world map of eratosthenes (276–194 bce).)
the 1st century bce greek historian apollodorus, quoted strabo, affirms bactrian greeks, led demetrius , menander, conquered india , occupied larger territory greeks under alexander great, going beyond hypanis towards himalayas:
greeks became masters of india , more tribes subdued them alexander—by menander in particular, subdued him , others demetrius, son of euthydemus king of bactrians.
the roman historian justin mentioned indo-greek kingdom, describing demetrius,king of indians ( regis indorum ), , explaining after vanquishing him eucratides in turn put india under rule ( indiam in potestatem redegit ) (since time of embassies of megasthenes in 3rd century bce india understood entire subcontinent, , cartographed geographers such eratosthenes). justin mentions apollodotus , menander kings of indians.
greek , indian sources tend indicate greeks campaigned far pataliputra until forced retreat. advance took place under reign of menander, important indo-greek king (a.k. narain , keay 2000) , of military advance of temporary nature, perhaps in alliance native indian states. permanent indo-greek dominions extended kabul valley eastern punjab or further east.
an indo-greek stone palette showing poseidon attendants. wears chiton tunic, chlamys cape, , boots. 2nd–1st century bce, gandhara, ancient orient museum.
to south, greeks occupied areas of sindh , gujarat down region of surat (greek: saraostus) near mumbai (bombay), including strategic harbour of barigaza (bharuch), attested several writers (strabo 11; periplus of erythraean sea, chap. 41/47) , evidenced coins dating indo-greek ruler apollodotus i:
greeks... took possession, not of patalena, also, on rest of coast, of called kingdom of saraostus , sigerdis.
the 1st century ce periplus of erythraean sea describes numerous greek buildings , fortifications in barigaza, although mistakenly attributing them alexander, , testifies circulation of indo-greek coinage in region:
metropolis of country minnagara, cotton cloth brought down barygaza. in these places there remain present time signs of expedition of alexander, such ancient shrines, walls of forts , great wells.
present day ancient drachmae current in barygaza, coming country, bearing inscriptions in greek letters, , devices of reigned after alexander, apollodorus (sic) , menander.
from ancient authors (pliny, arrian, ptolemy , strabo), list of provinces, satrapies, or simple regional designations, , greek cities within indo-greek kingdom can discerned (though others have been lost), ranging indus basin upper valley of ganges.
indian sources
various indian records describe yavana attacks on mathura, panchala, saketa, , pataliputra. term yavana thought transliteration of ionians , known have designated hellenistic greeks (starting edicts of ashoka, ashoka writes yavana king antiochus ), may have referred other foreigners well, in later centuries.
patanjali, grammarian , commentator on pāṇini around 150 bce, describes in mahābhāsya, invasion in 2 examples using imperfect tense of sanskrit, denoting recent event:
arunad yavanah sāketam ( yavanas (greeks) besieged saketa )
arunad yavano madhyamikām ( yavanas besieged madhyamika (the middle country )).
the anushasanaparava of mahabharata affirms country of mathura, heartland of india, under joint control of yavanas , kambojas. vayupurana asserts mathura ruled 7 greek kings on period of 82 years.
accounts of battles between greeks , shunga in central india found in mālavikāgnimitram, play kālidāsa describes encounter between greek forces , vasumitra, grandson of pushyamitra, during latter s reign.
also brahmanical text of yuga purana, describes indian historical events in form of prophecy, relates attack of indo-greeks on capital pataliputra, magnificent fortified city 570 towers , 64 gates according megasthenes, , describes ultimate destruction of city s walls:
then, after having approached saketa panchalas , mathuras, yavanas, valiant in battle, reach kusumadhvaja ( town of flower-standard , pataliputra). then, once puspapura (another name of pataliputra) has been reached , celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, realm in disorder.
according yuga purana situation of complete social disorder follows, in yavanas rule , mingle people, , position of brahmins , sudras inverted:
sudras utterers of bho (a form of address used towards equal or inferior), , brahmins utterers of arya (a form of address used towards superior), , elders, fearful of dharma, fearlessly exploit people. , in city yavanas, princes, make people acquainted them: yavanas, infatuated war, not remain in madhyadesa.
epigraphic remains
several depictions of greeks in central india dated 2nd-1st century bce known, such greek soldier in bharhut, or frieze in sanchi describes greek-looking foreigners honouring sanchi stupa gifts, prayers , music (image above). wear chlamys cape on short chiton tunics without trousers, , have high-laced sandals. beardless short curly hair , headbands, , 2 men wear conical pilos hat. play various instruments, including 2 carnyxes, , 1 aulos double-flute. near vidisa, indo-greek monument, heliodorus pillar, known.
a pillar discovered in reh, in ganges valley 350 km south-east of mathura mentions menander:
great king of kings, great king menander, saviour, steadfast in law (dharma), victorious , unvanquished...
another inscription 17mk mathura, maghera inscription, contains phrase in 116th year of greek kings... , suggesting greek rule in area until around 70 bce, greek era thought have started around 186 bce.
archaeological remains
urban remains
the city of sirkap, today in northwestern pakistan near taxila, built according hippodamian grid-plan characteristic of greek cities, , hellenistic fortress of considerable proportions, 6,000 meter wall on circumference, of height of 10 meters. houses of indo-greek level best planned of 6 strata, , rubble masonry of walls built solid , compact . thought city built demetrius.
artifacts
main archaeological artifacts indo-greek strata @ ancient taxila. source: john marshall taxila, archaeological excavations .
several hellenistic artifacts have been found, in particular coins of indo-greek kings, stone palettes representing greek mythological scenes, , small statuettes. of them purely hellenistic, others indicate evolution of greco-bactrian styles found @ ai-khanoum towards more indianized styles. example, accessories such indian ankle bracelets can found on representations of greek mythological figures such artemis.
the excavations of greek levels @ sirkap limited , made in peripheral areas, out of respect more recent archeological strata (those of indo-scythian , indo-parthian levels) , remaining religious buildings, , due difficulty of excavating extensively depth of 6 meters. results, although interesting, partial , cannot considered exhaustive. beyond this, no extensive archaeological excavation of indo-greek city has ever been done.
quantities of hellenistic artifacts , ceramics can found throughout northern india. clay seals depicting greek deities, , depiction of indo-greek king thought demetrius found @ benares.
stupas
evolution of butkara stupa (swat) during indo-greek period.
stupa decorated acanthus leaves, level iii, sirkap, 1st century bce. diameter: 2.5 meters.
when indo-greeks settled in area of taxila, large buddhist structures present, such stupa of dharmarajika built ashoka in 3rd century bce. these structures reinforced in following centuries, building rings of smaller stupas , constructions around original ones. numerous coins of indo-greek king zoilos ii found under foundation of 1st-century bce rectangular chapel near dharmarajika stupa.
also, various buddhist structures, such butkara stupa in area of swat enlarged , decorated hellenistic architectural elements in 2nd century bce, during rule of menander. stupas round mounds when indo-greeks settled in india, possibly top decorations, added various structural , decorative elements, such reinforcement belts, niches, architectural decorations such plinthes, toruses , cavettos, plaster painted decorative scrolls. niches designed place statues or friezes, indication of buddhist descriptive art during time of indo-greeks. coins of menander found within these constructions dating them around 150 bce. end of indo-greek rule , during indo-scythian period (1st century bce), stupas highly decorated colonnated flights of stairs , hellenistic scrolls of acanthus leaves.
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