1 timeline
1.1 planning campaign
1.2 armenia
1.3 mesopotamia
1.4 jewish uprising
timeline
planning campaign
the campaign planned in advance: ten legions concentrated in eastern theater; since 111, correspondence of pliny younger witnesses fact provincial authorities in bithynia had organize supplies passing troops, , local city councils , individual members had shoulder part of increased expenses supplying troops themselves. intended campaign, therefore, immensely costly beginning.
armenia
trajan marched first on armenia, deposed parthian-appointed king (who afterwards murdered while kept in custody of roman troops in unclear incident, later described fronto breach of roman faith) , annexed roman empire province, receiving in passing acknowledgement of roman hegemony various tribes in caucasus , on eastern coast of black sea – a process kept him busy until end of 114. @ same time, roman column under legate lusius quietus – an outstanding cavalry general had signaled himself during dacian wars commanding unit native mauretania – crossed araxes river armenia media atropatene , land of mardians (present-day ghilan). possible quietus campaign had goal extending of newer, more defensible roman border eastwards towards caspian sea , northwards foothills of caucasus.
mesopotamia
the chronology of subsequent events uncertain, believed in 115 trajan launched mesopotamian campaign, marching down towards taurus mountains in order consolidate territory between tigris , euphrates rivers. placed permanent garrisons along way secure territory. while trajan moved west east, lusius quietus moved army caspian sea towards west, both armies performing successful pincer movement, apparent result establish roman presence parthian empire proper, trajan taking northern mesopotamian cities of nisibis , batnae , organizing province of mesopotamia, including kingdom of osrhoene – where king abgaros vii submitted trajan publicly – as roman protectorate.this process seems have been completed @ beginning of 116, when coins issued announcing armenia , mesopotamia had been put under authority of roman people. area between khabur river , mountains around singara seems have been considered new frontier, , such received road surrounded fortresses.
sestertius issued senate (sc, senatus consultus) during 116 commemorate trajan s parthian victories. obverse: bust of trajan, laurel crown. caption: trajan s titulature. reverse: trajan standing between prostrate allegories of armenia (crowned tiara) , rivers tigris & euphrates. caption: armenia & mesopotamia put under authority of roman people .
bronze bust of trajan in later years, museum of anatolian civilizations, ankara, turkey
after wintering in antioch during 115/116 – and, according literary sources, barely escaping violent earthquake claimed life of 1 of consuls, m. pedo virgilianus – trajan again took field in 116, view conquest whole of mesopotamia, overambitious goal backfired on results of entire campaign. according modern historians, aim of campaign of 116 achieve preemptive demonstration aiming not toward conquest of parthia, tighter roman control on eastern trade route. however, overall scarcity of manpower roman military establishment meant campaign doomed start. noteworthy no new legions raised trajan before parthian campaign, maybe because sources of new citizen recruits over-exploited.
as far sources allow description of campaign, seems 1 roman division crossed tigris adiabene, sweeping south , capturing adenystrae; second followed river south, capturing babylon; trajan himself sailed down euphrates dura-europos – where triumphal arch erected in honour – through ozogardana, erected tribunal still seen @ time of julian apostate s campaigns in same area. having come narrow strip of land between euphrates , tigris, dragged fleet overland tigris, capturing seleucia , parthian capital of ctesiphon.
he continued southward persian gulf, when, after escaping fleet tidal bore on tigris, received submission of athambelus, ruler of charax. declared babylon new province of empire , had statue erected on shore of persian gulf, after sent senate laurelled letter declaring war @ close , bemoaning old go on further , repeat conquests of alexander great. since charax de facto independent kingdom connections palmyra described above, trajan s bid persian gulf may have coincided palmyrene interests in region. hypothesis rulers of charax had expansionist designs on parthian babylon, giving them rationale alliance trajan. parthian summer capital of susa apparently occupied romans.
according late literary sources (not backed numismatic or inscriptional evidence) province of assyria proclaimed, apparently covering territory of adiabene. measures seem have been considered regarding fiscal administration of indian trade – or payment of customs (portoria) on goods traded on euphrates , tigris. possible streamlining of administration of newly conquered lands according standard pattern of roman provincial administration in tax collecting, requisitions , handling of local potentates prerogatives, triggered later resistance against trajan.
according modern historians, trajan might have busied himself during stay on persian gulf ordering raids on parthian coasts, probing extending roman suzerainty on mountaineer tribes holding passes across zagros mountains iranian plateau eastward, establishing sort of direct contact between rome , kushan empire. no attempt made expand iranian plateau itself, roman army, relative weakness in cavalry, have been @ disadvantage.
a coin of trajan, found coins of kushan ruler kanishka, @ ahin posh buddhist monastery, afghanistan
however, trajan left persian gulf babylon – where intended offer sacrifice alexander in house had died in 323 bc – a sudden outburst of parthian resistance, led nephew of parthian king, sanatruces, had retained cavalry force, possibly strengthened addition of saka archers, imperilled roman positions in mesopotamia , armenia, trajan sought deal forsaking direct roman rule in parthia proper, @ least partially.
trajan sent 2 armies towards northern mesopotamia: first, under lusius quietus, recovered nisibis , edessa rebels, having king abgarus deposed , killed in process, while second, under appius maximus santra (probably governor of macedonia), defeated, santra being killed. later in 116, trajan, assistance of quietus , 2 other legates, marcus erucius clarus , tiberius julius alexander julianus, defeated parthian army in battle sanatruces killed. after re-taking , burning seleucia, trajan formally deposed parthian king osroes , put own puppet ruler parthamaspates on throne. event commemorated in coin presented reduction of parthia client kingdom status: rex parthis datus, king given parthians . done, trajan retreated north in order retain of new provinces of armenia – where had accepted armistice in exchange surrendering part of territory sanatruces son vologeses , mesopotamia.
bust of trajan, glyptothek, munich
it @ point trajan s health started fail him. fortress city of hatra, on tigris in rear, continued hold out against repeated roman assaults. present @ siege, , possible suffered heat stroke while in blazing heat.
jewish uprising
shortly afterwards, jews inside eastern roman empire, in egypt, cyprus , cyrene – this last province being original trouble hotspot – rose in outburst of religious rebellion against local pagans, widespread rebellion being afterwards named kitos war. rebellion flared among jewish communities of northern mesopotamia, part of general reaction against roman occupation. trajan forced withdraw army in order put down revolts. saw withdrawal temporary setback, destined never command army in field again, turning eastern armies on lusius quietus, meanwhile had been made governor of judaea , might have had deal earlier kind of jewish unrest in province. quietus discharged commission successfully, war afterward named after him – kitus being corruption of quietus.
quietus promised consulate in following year (118) victories, killed before occur, during bloody purge opened hadrian s reign, in quietus , 3 other former consuls sentenced death after being tried on vague charge of conspiracy (secret) court of praetorian prefect attianus. has been theorized quietus , colleagues executed on hadrian s direct orders, fear of popular standing army , close connections trajan.
in contrast, next prominent roman figure in charge of repression of jewish revolt, equestrian quintus marcius turbo, had dealt rebel leader cyrene, loukuas, retained hadrian s trust, becoming praetorian prefect. apparently, hadrian not allow continued existence alongside him of group of independent-minded senatorial generals inherited predecessor. 4 consulars senators of highest standing , such regarded able take imperial power (capaces imperii), hadrian seems have decided on preemptive strike against these prospective rivals.
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