1 description of finished fortress
1.1 location
1.1.1 first impression
1.2 channel
1.3 river batteries
1.3.1 preliminary batteries
1.3.2 batería londres
1.3.3 batería cadenas
1.4 chain boom
1.5 approach
1.6 torpedoes
1.7 landward defences; quadrilateral
1.7.1 flood defences
1.7.2 electrical telegraphy
1.7.3 headquarters
1.7.4 newspapers
1.7.5 unmapped terrain
1.8 chaco side
description of finished fortress
detailed plan of fortress of humaitá, showing batteries , other installations. evolved brazilian military surveyors late in war, shows allied lines of circumvallation. (this image best viewed @ high resolution.)
another plan of fortress of humaitá made polish-argentine officer roberto adolfo chodasiewicz (1832-1891).
location
the fortress of humaitá situated on level cliff 30 feet (10 metres) above river, on sharp horseshoe bend. bend, called ‘’’vuelta de humaitá’’’ ideal strategic pinch point. 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) long; navigable channel narrowed 200 metres (660 ft) broad; current 2.8 knots (5.2 km/h; 3.2 mph) , in places 3 knots (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph), difficult ships of day stem; , (a matter horrify brazilian navy) ideal release of ‘torpedoes (nineteenth century floating naval mines).
an unpleasant surprise invading flotilla that, owing peculiar conformation of river bed, there treacherous backwaters neutralize action of rudder, in direct proportion length of vessels .
first impression
the explorer captain sir richard burton, visited scene during war – when brazilians still dismantling fortifications – described thus:
the sweep more concave, benefit of gunnery , detriment of shipping. nothing more dangerous great bend, vessels sure confused under fire, happened @ port hudson fleet commanded admiral d. g. farragut. level bank, twenty thirty feet above river, , dipping in places, bounded swamps up-stream , down-stream. earthworks, consisting of trenches, curtains , redans, disposed @ intervals wanted, , suggesting lines of torres vedras, rest both extremities upon river, shape here of letter u, , extend in gibbous shape inland south. outline measures 8 miles , half, , encloses meadow land extent of 8,000,000 square yards – glorious battlefield.
the channel
the 200-yard wide navigable channel ran close east bank i.e. river batteries.
river batteries
the londres battery of humaitá fortifications. although image e.c. jourdan of brazilian engineering corps has become iconic, shows in state of part dismantlement. in reality embrasures protected heaped earth.
batteries of fortress of humaitá according e.c. jourdan (1871) of brazilian corps of engineers.
an invading force, if steaming around bend upriver, have pass 8 fixed batteries, capable of concentrating fire on reentrant angle. furthermore shipping within range of heavy guns before arriving @ bend, , after it.
the batteries variously named in sources, , number of guns may not have been constant.
preliminary batteries
first invading force had pass humaitá redoubt, armed single 8 inch (20 cm calibre) gun.
it must pass itapirú (seven guns); pesada [heavy] (five guns), partly revetted brick; octava or madame lynch (three guns en barbette); coimbra (eight guns); , tacuarí (three guns).
the batería londres
next, invading flotilla must pass batería londres (so called because of técnicos in paraguay recruited limehouse, london, firm of j. & a. blyth). walls 8.2 metres (27 ft) thick. supposed rendered bomb-proof layers of earth heaped upon brick arches, , there embrasures 16 guns. of these ports said burton 8 walled , converted workshops, because artillerymen in hourly dread of caving in , crumbling down.
the batería cadenas
as climax invading force come alongside bateria cadenas (chain battery, protected chain boom), backed artillery barracks. according survey brazilian engineering corps battery had 18 guns.
the chain boom
the boom across river, intended detain shipping under guns, variously described in sources. richard burton , commander kennedy rn said comprised 7 chains twisted together, of (wrote burton) largest had 1.75 inch diameter link. made fast windlass supported house 100 yards bank. nearer battery stood still larger capstan. other sources, notably george thompson (de facto chief engineer of paraguayan army) wrote there 3 chains side-by-side, of heaviest had 7.5 inch links, sustained barges , canoes.
the official staff report of allied force captured humaitá, dated 29 july 1868, cordeiro tôrres e alvim, said on both banks of river there 7 chains which, after entering water, bound three. latter partly sustained large floating iron boxes.
approach
approach humaitá. river paraguay mouth river batteries of curuzú , curupayti. base map emilio carlos jourdan (1838-1900).
before arriving @ vuelta de humaitá invading squadron first have navigate river paraguay mouth, , run gauntlet of such batteries paraguayans able deploy on left bank, particularly @ curuzú , curupayty. whether unarmoured warships have done without being sunk never ascertained; during war unarmoured wooden vessels of brazilian navy did not attempt it.
although heavily iron-plated ships ought not sunk these river batteries, weight , size made them difficult, , @ times impossible, navigate in shallow waters of river paraguay. commander kennedy of royal navy observed:
the river paraguay presents no important obstacles navigation, principal point observe being [seasonal] rise of water; varies as 3 fathoms [5 1/2 metres] ... danger attendant on grounding in paraguay ... [that it] has sharp rocky bottom ... entrance paraguay @ tres bocas 500 yards wide, , @ medium river there depth of twelve feet of water. iron-clads of brazilian fleet, many of drew twelve , thirteen feet of water, entirely dependent on these periodical rises, both forward movements, , retreat, if should have been necessary. guns , ammunition not shipped until arrived @ corrientes; paraná equally shallow in various parts...
it difficult conceive more formidable obstacle advancing squadron small portion of river between tres bocas , humaitá. water shallow, , uncertain in depth; turnings in channel sharp , frequent, , every available point bristling guns of heavy calibre ...
torpedoes
brazilian ironclad rio de janeiro sunk torpedo in front of curuzú. painting adolfo methfessel (1836-1909).
paraguayan torpedoes , other weaponry. 1867 illustration brazilian military engineer conrado jacó de niemeyer (1831-1905). torpedoes of both floating , underwater (moored) types illustrated. on left paraguayan armour-piercing ordnance, of lópez had limited supply.
for invading force of ironclads dangerous aspect of humaitá not artillery batteries torpedoes released in confined, shallow , uncharted stream of river paraguay.
these torpedoes improvised contact mines. first devised yankee, mr. krüger . consisted of zinc cylinder containing charge of gunpowder. largest ever made used charge of 1,500 lbs (680 kilos) , explosion shook ground @ town of corrientes, argentina twenty miles off. fuses designed , made george frederick masterman, chief apothecary paraguayan army: glass capsules of sulphuric acid which, when broken striking heavy object, ignited potassium chlorate/sugar mixture.
although of these devices failed go off, except prematurely, 1 did sink 1,000 ton brazilian ironclad rio de janeiro killing 155 men, had taken seriously. since torpedo (simulated or real) released every night, brazilian navy had have patrol boats out rowing in 3 shifts tried spot floating torpedoes; if did, attempted hook floats grappling irons on long lines. wrote commander kennedy rn, service of great danger .
apart more common floating type, seen , removed, paraguayans deployed torpedoes moored river bed, not. these potent psychological barrier.
deploying torpedoes not without dangers either. after kruger s death – blown 1 of torpedoes – work taken on paraguayan called ramos had served apprenticeship in england. met same fate, , work given polish refugee named michkoffsky. michkoffsky used take torpedoes down river in canoe paddled 4 boys. 1 day distracted , boys absconded allies torpedo: arrested, reduced ranks , sent front, killed. anonymous, if brave, paraguayan diver tried attach torpedo brazilian ironclad brasil hand: deduced when found entangled in rudder-chains, drowned.
the paraguayans deliberately moored empty demijohns in river make brazilian navy suppose marked situations of torpedoes. made them noticeably reluctant navigate waters.
landward defences; quadrilateral
the environs , landward defences of humaitá. essentially, natural terrain here swampland, physically impassible invading army. there 2 narrow fronts military force might have squeezed through on firmish ground: 1. landing @ curupaty. country south of fortress (marked green) meadowland, , invading force might have landed @ 1 curupaty. paraguayans had foreseen this. interdict it, had built 8-mile line of trenches defended many artillery pieces , large garrison. quadrilateral. in map quadrilateral denoted thick black lines. other points on quadrilateral: 2 chichi. 3 sauce. 4 paso gómez. 5 Ángulo. 6 espinillo. 7 humaitá fortifications. so, paraguayans completed trench @ curupayty in time. allies launched frontal attack, , suffered worst defeat of war. lópez headquarters @ hq paso pucú; had telegraph lines running other important points. 2. bypassing fortress east. allies discover, after trial, error , bloodshed, there strip of drying mud east of fortress. main places on tihs route: tuyucué. b san solano. c on arroyo hondo stream. d obella. e tayí (where possible rejoin river paraguay). route @ all, necessary start, not river paraguay, river paraná in extreme south. (note: legend high road asunción not mean there road in modern sense, way passable in principle.) other notable features. @ c lópez built cierva redoubt, had no military purpose other confuse enemy. (thinking must important, captured @ enormous loss of life.) @ t timbó, nearest place on chaco side of river possible land. here lópez built supply road ran inland through 54 miles of deep mud; when position became untenable escaped through there bulk of forces , artillery. @ timbó established fort cause more damage river batteries @ humaitá. scale marked on map 3 miles (5 km). (wikipedia annotation of base map drawn in 1869 george thompson (engineer).
the paraguayans had taken precautions against humaitá being seized landward side. of protected naturally carrizal, marsh or swamp, , not, elaborate system of trenches constructed, extending on 13 km (8 mi) palisades , chevaux-de-fríse @ regular intervals, known quadrilateral (cuadrilátero, polígono or quadrilatero in various language sources). these trenches mounted batteries appropriate. trenches , natural barriers shown in map reproduced in section of article, drawn scale lt. colonel george thompson (engineer) of paraguayan army; made detailed trigonometric survey of ground. map corroborated burton s detailed verbal description based on own inspection on horseback , on figures supplied him lt. colonel chodasiewicz of argentine army.
burton reported layout required garrison of @ least 10,000 men; @ time of siege of humaitá allied commander-in-chief estimated had 18,000 , possibly 20,000 men , 120 cannon not including river batteries.
flood defences
the colonel in charge of paraguayan military engineering george thompson arranged part of quadrilateral protected flood defences. quadrilateral had weak spot or potential invasion point @ paso gómez (the spanish word paso denotes pass), denoted 4 on map in section. damming estero bellaco n. @ 3 entered zone denoted thick jungle raised water level @ paso gómez more 6 feet (2 metres). further, provided sluice-gate. should enemy [in] , prepare rush ... gate opened, , terrible flood of water carry them before carrizal .
electrical telegraphy
in final stages of fortifications electrical telegraph lines laid out humaitá , points in quadrilateral lópez s headquarters @ pasó pucú; , instantly informed—in morse code—of enemy attack on point. george thompson recorded guaraní became adept telegraphists. telegraphs kept working day, commander of division being obliged report every little thing lópez, receiving these despatches day long .
headquarters
earthworks protecting lópez s house; watchtower. key: = traverses or earthworks. b = mangrullo or watchtower. 1 = president s house. 2, 3 = family. 4,5 = servants. sketch e. c. jourdan of brazilian corps of engineers.
paso pucú. headquarters of tyrant lópez. earthwork protect him allied fire − done life . painting (and title) argentine general , watercolourist josé ignacio garmendía (1841-1925). (an argentine flag flies on captured watchtower.)
lópez ii established headquarters @ paso pucú, 1 of corners of quadrilateral (see map in section). amongst orange groves stood dwellings of lópez, mistress eliza lynch, , military officers enjoyed confidence e.g. generals barrios, resquín, , bruges; bishop palacios, lt colonel george thompson chief engineer , dr stewart surgeon-general. houses simple ranchos (austere dwellings) thatched roofs. quadrangle of large traverses or earthworks protected allied artillery fire house, of mrs lynch, , of servants. these earthworks made of sods , largest said contain 422,080 pieces. @ centre of quadrangle mangrullo or watchtower. according burton mangrullo s ladders surrounded hides , matting, unusual precaution intended conceal petticoated ankles , used mrs lynch; , indeed contemporaneous drawing brazilian engineering corps show, unusually paraguay, mangrullo covered ascent.
a large military hospital established halfway between humaitá , paso pucú , 1 field officers @ paso pucú itself. @ paso pucú there 2 settlements female camp-followers; assisted in hospitals , washed soldiers clothes. allowed no rations, , lived on beef soldiers gave them. there cemetery, , prisoner-of war compound.
masthead of paraguayan military newspaper cabichuí published @ fortress complex. cloud of cabichuís (local venomous wasps) assails afro-brazilian.
newspapers
at headquarters published military newspapers cabichuí (mainly in spanish) , cacique lambaré (mainly in guaraní). these featured crude effective propaganda woodcuts, of racially offensive nature. paper in short supply ersatz version improvised caraguatá (wild pineapple).
unmapped terrain
bird s-eye view of fortress of humaitá observation balloon. (harper s weekly: journal of civilization, 1868.). chain boom marked @ 1; outwork of curupaity @ 5.
while paraguayans familiar ground, maps of territory were, allies, non-existent. area lay in province of Ñeembucú, flat, low-lying , obscured swamp or carrizal. example, when established main camp @ tuyutí in southern paraguay allies did not realise placing within earshot of southwestern line of quadrilateral: sauce trench. did not know humaitá protected quadrilateral: in 5-volume work on paraguayan war brazilian historian tasso fragoso insists brazilian high command letter of april 1867
does not leave slightest doubt allies ignorant not of topography of terrain [to south-east of fortress], of protected lines of [paraguayan] entrenchments.
paraguayan soldiers mooning @ brazilian observation balloon. propaganda cartoon in paraguayan government newspaper el centinela, 8 august 1867.
in order gradually map area allies obliged resort mangrullos (improvised watch towers) or (a first in south american warfare) captive observation balloons, paraguayans obscured terrain lighting fires of damp grass.
the chaco side
on opposite bank of river paraguay begins area known gran chaco, different, hot, semi-arid climate. part of chaco, part of argentina, in dispute in days, inhabited none except fierce toba nomads. chaco bank of river paraguay low, , liable flooding. in front of humaitá land quite impracticable far timbó which, when river high, under water. (later, military roads made through there @ vast effort.)
later in war, when allies started flanking movement southeast of humaitá, lópez sent , had chaco explored, , gave orders build road through chaco timbó (the nearest place on coast opposite humaitá landing effected).
the road through chaco tolerably straight, , fifty-four miles long. did not follow course of river paraguay, went inland. great part of road went through deep mud, , 5 deep streams had crossed, apart river bermejo.
once appreciated position hopeless, lópez used road escape humaitá bulk of troops , artillery. ferried humaitá timbó 2 paraguayan paddle steamers, , on canoes.
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